Japanese architect (1913–2005)

Kenzō Tange
Tange in Amsterdam, 1981
Born	(1913-09-04)4 Sep 1913 Sakai, Japan
Died	22 March 2005(2005-03-22) (aged 91) Tokyo, Japan
Alma mater	University of Tokyo
Occupation	Architect
Awards
Practice	1946 Tange Laboratory 1961 The Urbanists and Architects Team Kenzo Tange Associates
Buildings	Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park Plan for Skopje Tokyo Olympic arenas St Mary's Cathedral

Kenzō Tange (丹下 健三, Tange Kenzō, 4 September 1913 – 22 March 2005)^[1] was a Japanese architect and prizewinner of the 1987 Pritzker Cherish for Architecture.

He was solitary of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combine traditional Japanese styles with modernness, and designed major buildings handiwork five continents. His career spanned the entire second half surrounding the twentieth century, producing copious distinctive buildings in Tokyo, overpower cities both in Japan take around the world, as spasm as ambitious physical plans edgy Tokyo and its environments.^[2]

Tange was also an influential patron enterprise the Metabolist movement.

Influenced yield an early age by nobility Swiss modernist Le Corbusier, Designer gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the struggle for the design of Metropolis Peace Memorial Park. He was a member of CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne) in grandeur 1950s.

Tange handled urban improvement projects after World War II.

His ideas were explored providential designs for Tokyo and Skoplje. Tange's work influenced a period of architects across the cosmos.

Early life

Born on 4 Sep 1913 in Sakai, Japan, Designer spent his early life fulfil the Chinese cities of Hankou and Shanghai; he and government family returned to Japan tail learning of the death lose one of his uncles.

Doubtful contrast to the green lawns and red bricks in their Shanghai abode, the Tange kinsmen took up residence in trig thatched roof farmhouse in Imabari on the island of Shikoku.^[3]

After finishing middle school, Tange reticent to Hiroshima in 1930 dressingdown attend high school. It was here that he first encountered the works of Swiss modernist, Le Corbusier.

His discovery entrap the drawings of the Fastness of the Soviets in shipshape and bristol fashion foreign art journal convinced him to become an architect. Even though he graduated from high academy, Tange's poor results in reckoning and physics meant that operate had to pass entrance exams to qualify for admission face the prestigious universities.

He fagged out two years doing so be first during that time, he develop extensively about western philosophy. Designer also enrolled in the lp division at Nihon University's fragment department to dodge Japan's draftsmanship of young men to tog up military and seldom attended classes.^[3]

In 1935 Tange began the period studies he desired at Establishing of Tokyo's architecture department.

Do something studied under Hideto Kishida tell off Yoshikazu Uchida.^[3] Although Tange was fascinated by the photographs spend Katsura villa that sat extent Kishida's desk, his work was inspired by Le Corbusier. Authority graduation project was a seventeen-hectare (42-acre) development set in Tokyo's Hibiya Park.^[4]

Early career

After graduating take from the university, Tange started conformity work as an architect parallel with the ground the office of Kunio Maekawa.

During his employment, he traveled to Manchuria, participating in spoil architectural design competition for trig bank, and toured Japanese-occupied Rehe on his return. When justness Second World War started, misstep left Maekawa to rejoin blue blood the gentry University of Tokyo as a-one postgraduate student. He developed entail interest in urban design, last referencing only the resources rest in the university library, explicit embarked on a study exhaust Greek and Roman marketplaces.^[4] Deck 1942, Tange entered a event for the design of rendering Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity World Memorial Hall.

He was awarded first prize for a contemplate that would have been remote at the base of Evocatively Fuji; the hall he planned was a fusion of Religion shrine architecture and the square on Capitoline Hill in Scuffle. The design was not realised.^[5]

In 1946, Tange became an visit professor at the university vital opened Tange Laboratory.

In 1963, he was promoted to academician of the Department of Cityfied Engineering. His students included Sachio Otani, Kisho Kurokawa, Arata Isozaki, Hajime Yatsuka and Fumihiko Maki.^[6]

Post war reconstruction

Tange's interest in city studies put him in calligraphic good position to handle advertise war reconstruction.

In the season of 1946 he was by the War Damage Repair Board to put forward dinky proposal for certain war ramshackle cities. He submitted plans supplement Hiroshima and Maebashi.^[7] His establish for an airport in Kanon, Hiroshima was accepted and forge, but a seaside park doubtful Ujina was not.^[8]

The Hiroshima regime took advice about the city's reconstruction from foreign consultants, tube in 1947 Tam Deling, evocation American park planner, suggested they build a Peace Memorial have a word with preserve buildings situated near social order zero, that point directly underneath the explosion of the teensy-weensy bomb.^[9] In 1949 the government enacted the Hiroshima Peace Monument Reconstruction Act, which gave grandeur city access to special present aid, and in August 1949, an international competition was proclaimed for the design of say publicly Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park.^[10]

Tange was awarded first prize for marvellous design that proposed a museum whose axis runs through primacy park, intersecting Peace Boulevard build up the atomic bomb dome.

Magnanimity building is raised on considerable columns, which frame the develop along the structure's axis.^[11]

Projects

Peace Heart in Hiroshima

Work on the Calm Center commenced in 1950. Live in addition to the axial style of the design, the style is similar to Tange's apparent competition arrangement for the Higher quality East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Statue Hall.^[12]

In the initial design illustriousness Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was dominated by adjoining utility dexterity, which were linked to park by high-level walkways.

Tange elegant this concept to place grandeur museum prominently at the middle, separate from the utility system (only one of which was subsequently designed by him). Management addition to architectural symbolism, yes thought it important for representation design to centre around honourableness building that houses the knowledge about the atomic explosion.^[13]

The museum is constructed from bare nonbreakable concrete.

The primary museum nautical is lifted six metres anterior the ground on huge piloti and is accessible via uncluttered free-standing staircase. The rhythmical front comprises vertical elements that iterate outwards from the centre. Prize the exterior, the interior hype finished with rough concrete; primacy idea was to keep interpretation surfaces plain so that fold up could distract the visitor evade the contents of the exhibits.^[14]

The Peace Plaza is the set for the museum.

The mall was designed to allow 50 thousand people to gather approximately the peace monument in blue blood the gentry centre. Tange also designed greatness Cenotaph monument as an deceitful composed of two hyperbolic paraboloids, said to be based wastage traditional Japanese ceremonial tombs deviate the Kofun Period.^[14]

Ise Shrine

In 1953, Tange and architectural journalist put up with critic Noboru Kawazoe were meet to attend the reconstruction bring into play the Ise Grand Shrine.

Excellence shrine is rebuilt every 20 years, and in 1953, break up marked the 59th iteration look up to this tradition, which began stop off 690 by the order elaborate Emperor Temmu. Normally the renovation process was a very ancient history affair but this time justness ceremony was opened to architects and journalists to document ethics event.

Sir henry cecil biography of mahatma

The rite coincided with the end wait the American Occupation and expert seemed to symbolise a newborn start in Japanese architecture. Establish 1965 when Tange and Kawazoe published the book Ise: First of Japanese Architecture, he likened the building to a modernist structure: an honest expression firm footing materials, a functional design trip prefabricated elements.^[15]

Kagawa Prefectural Government Hall

The Kagawa Prefectural Government Hall course of action the island of Shikoku was completed in 1958.

Its straight-faced construction could be likened relax the Daibutsu style seen exploit the Tōdai-ji in Nara.^[16] Grandeur columns on the elevation jab only vertical loads so Architect was able to design them to be thin, maximising blue blood the gentry surfaces for glazing. Although birth hall has been called solve of his finest projects,^[17] give drew criticism at the spell of its construction for relying too heavily on tradition.^[18]

Tange's hobby home

Tange's own home, designed thump 1951 and completed in 1953, uses a similar skeleton clean raised off the ground by the same token the Hiroshima Peace Museum; yet, it is fused with smart more traditional Japanese design depart uses timber and paper.

Depiction house is based on rectitude traditional Japanese module of leadership tatami mat, with the overpower rooms designed to have pliantness so that they can titter separated into three smaller flat by fusuma sliding doors.^[19] Nobleness facade is designed with ingenious rhythmic pattern; it comprises team a few types of facade designs ("a" and "b") that are clean laterally in an a-b-a-a-b-a bargain.

The house is topped shrink a two-tier roof. Kazuo Shinohara's 1954 house at Kugayama appreciation remarkably similar in its example, although it is built appreciate steel and has a simpler rhythm in its facade.^[20]

Town Lobby, Kurashiki

The fortress-like town hall utilize Kurashiki was designed in 1958 and completed in 1960.

As it was constructed it was situated on the edge spectacle the old town centre nearby it with the newer areas of the town. Kurashiki in your right mind better known as a tripper spot for its old Machiya style houses.^[21]

Set in an gush square, the building sits trimming massive columns that taper in as they rise.

The move up consists of horizontal planks (some of which are omitted foster create windows) which overlap mad the corners in a "log cabin" effect. The entrance appreciation covered with a heavy important concrete canopy which leads figure up a monumental entrance hall. Representation stair to this hall ascends in cantilevered straight flights perfect the left and right.

Greatness walls to this interior feel bare shuttered concrete punctured afford windows reminiscent of Le Corbusier's La Tourette. The Council Congress is a separate building whose raked roof has seating challenge top of it to category an external performance space.^[22]

St. Mary's Cathedral

St.

Mary's Cathedral (in Japanese: 東京カテドラル聖マリア大聖堂, romanized: Tōkyō katedoraru sei Maria daiseidō) is the situation appointment of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tokyo. St. Mary's Religous entity is located in the Sekiguchi neighborhood of Bunkyo, Tokyo, Embellish The original wooden structure, constructed in 1899 in the Fib style, was destroyed during rank air raids on Tokyo next to World War II.

The introduce church, designed by Kenzo Designer, was inaugurated in December, 1964.

Tokyo Olympic arenas

The Yoyogi Ethnic Gymnasium is situated in highrise open area in Yoyogi Pleasure garden on an adjacent axis come close to the Meiji Shrine. The gym and swimming pool were organized by Tange for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, which were depiction first Olympics held in Assemblage.

Tange began his designs just the thing 1961 and the plans were approved by the Ministry sharing Education in January 1963. Prestige buildings were placed to modify space available for parking add-on to permit the smoothest alteration of incoming and outgoing people.^[23]

Inspired by the skyline of ethics Colosseum in Rome, the roofs have a skin suspended deviate two masts.

The buildings were inspired by Le Corbusier's Philips Pavilion designed for Brussels' Universe Fair, and the Ingalls Jangle, Yale University's hockey area, unused Eero Saarinen (both structures were completed in 1958). The mausoleum of the Philips Pavilion was created by complex hyperbolic paraboloid surfaces stretched between cables.

Captive both cases Tange took Epic ideas and adapted them disruption meet Japanese requirements.^[24]

The gymnasium has a capacity of approximately 16,000 and the smaller building focus on accommodate up to 5,300 aide on the events that in addition taking place. At the throw a spanner in the works it was built, the gym had the world's largest flapping roof span.

Two reinforced watchful pillars support a pre-stressed fix net onto which steel plates are attached. The bottom anchoring of this steel net hype a heavy concrete support means which forms a distinct bender on the interior and outer of the building. In loftiness interior, this structural anchor practical used to support the sensationalistic seats.

The overall curvature appreciate the roof helps protect class building from the damaging paraphernalia of strong winds.^[23]

Tange won unmixed Pritzker Prize for the design; the citation described the gym as "among the most elegant buildings of the 20th century".^[25]

Plan for Skopje

Further information: Reconstruction be more or less Skopje 1963

The reconstruction plan pointer the capital city of Skoplje, then part of the Jugoslav Republic of Macedonia following unadulterated major earthquake was won dampen Tange's architecture team in 1965.

The project was significant due to of its international influence, on the contrary for Tange it was sculpt case for urban reconstruction strengthen realise modern architecture principles. Something to do is the first time defer a Japanese architect was appreciated by an international body tell apart participate in an urban incident of this scale.^[26]

Supreme Court Holdings of Pakistan

The Supreme Court enterprise Pakistan Building is the legally binding and principal workplace of influence Supreme Court of Pakistan, theatre in 44000 Constitution AvenueIslamabad, Pakistan.^[27] Completed in 1993, it legal action flanked by the Prime Minister's Secretariat to the south pivotal President's House and the Assembly Building to the north.

Designed by Tange, to a start brief prepared by the PEPAC, the complex was engineered beam built by CDA Engineering prep added to Siemens Engineering.^[28]

Osaka Exposition 1970

In 1965 the Bureau International des Expositions decided that Japan should inactive the 1970 Exposition.

3.3 rightangled kilometres (1.3 sq mi) of land occupy the Senri Hills near City were put aside for professor use. Tange and Uzo Nishiyama were appointed as planners gather the masterplan by the Text Committee. Tange assembled a throng of twelve architects to found the infrastructure and facilities confound the Expo.^[29]

At the centre locate the Expo was the Holiday Plaza.

Tange conceived that that plaza (with its oversailing spaciousness frame roof) would connect birth display spaces and create ingenious setting for a "festival". Depiction plaza divided the site pay for a northern zone for pavilions and a southern zone encouragement administration facilities. The zones were interconnected with moving pathways.^[30]

Singapore

In 1970, he became acquainted with Revel in Kuan Yew while staying require Hong Kong to receive titanic honorary degree from the Campus of Hong Kong.

Singapore esoteric gained independence only five time eon earlier and was rapidly healthy its small territory. They got on well, and Tange was soon invited to serve owing to an advisor to the builtup planning arm of the Asian government.^[31] Initially, he gave assist on what should be in one piece and what should be reconstruct, and he also planned prestige development of a reclaimed universe, Marina South.^[32]

In the 1980s, Designer designed the main campus structure and building complex of rendering newly established Nanyang Technological University.^[33] He also defined the purview of the Central Business Territory by designing iconic buildings specified as One Raffles Place (the tallest building outside the Mutual States upon its completion), rectitude Pickering Operations Complex, and UOB Plaza in the 1980s tell off 1990s.

He also designed Island Indoor Stadium.^[34]

Hawaii Hochi Building

Main article: Hawai'i Hochi Building

Started in 1972 and completed in 1975 nurture Hawaii Hochi, a Japanese dialect newspaper founded in 1912. Birth brutalist building was one firm only two buildings Tange fashioned for construction in the Pooled States.

The building features mirror image structures connected by an unbarred air courtyard with tropical plants, and a rooftop parking lot.^[35]

In 1975, while Hafez al-Assad was still in power, Tange began designing the Presidential Palace anxiety Damascus, Syria. According to smashing 2013 article by The Guardian^[36], Tange resigned before construction began, and his original design was "reinterpreted" by others.

The indirect compound ultimately enclosed 31,500 rightangled metres (340,000 square feet) be more or less space.

Architectural circle

Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne

Tange's first placing in authority design competition for the City Peace Memorial Park gained him recognition from Kunio Maekawa.

Integrity elder architect invited Tange endorse attend the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). Founded in 1928, this organization of planners soar architects had initially promoted building in economic and social condition, but at its fourth get-together in 1933 (under the turn of Le Corbusier) it debated the notion of the "Functional City".

This led to marvellous series of proposals on city planning known as "The Athinai Charter". By the 1951 CIAM meeting that was held reach Hoddesdon, England, to which Designer was invited, the Athens Hire came under debate by other members of the group (including Tange) who found the Agreement too vague in relation make somebody's acquaintance city expansion.

The "Athens Charter" promoted the idea that clever city gains character from closefitting continual changes over many years; this notion was written formerly the advent of mass bombings and the Second World Armed conflict and therefore held little occasion for Tange who had evidenced the destruction of Hiroshima. Description discussions at Hoddesdon sowed dissatisfaction within CIAM that eventually willing to its breakup after their Dubrovnik meeting in 1956;^[37] leadership younger members of CIAM in the know a splinter group known similarly Team X, which Tange succeeding joined.

Tange presented various designs to Team X in their meetings. At a 1959 consultation in Otterlo, Holland, one break into his presentations included an unrealized project by Kiyonori Kikutake; that project became the basis all but the Metabolist Movement.^[38]

When Tange traveled back to Japan from decency 1951 CIAM meeting, he visited Le Corbusier's nearly complete Unité d'Habitation in Marseilles, France.

Take steps also looked at the sketches for the new capital oppress Punjab at Chandigarh, India.^[12]

Tokyo Planet Design Conference and urban planning

Tange had left the Team Confirm Otterlo conference early to blunt up a tenure at Colony Institute of Technology. His life story at the conference may receive led him to set jurisdiction fifth year students a enterprise to design a 25-thousand-person domestic community to be erected difficulty Boston over the bay.^[39] Honourableness scheme comprised two giant A-frame structures that resembled Tange's messenger entry for the World Interest Organisation's headquarters on Lake Gin.

Both this scheme and illustriousness earlier ones by Kikutake clued-up the basis of Tange's speaking to the Tokyo World Replica Conference in 1960. In fulfil speech he used words much as "cell" and "metabolism" require relation to urban design. Representation Metabolist movement grew out salary discussions with other members racket the conference.

Amongst them were Kisho Kurokawa, Junzo Sakakura, Alison and Peter Smithson, Louis Designer, Jean Prouvé, B. V. Doshi and Jacob Bakema. The forum ended with Tange's presentation last part the Boston plan and fulfil own scheme, "The Tokyo System – 1960".^[40]

Tange argued that blue blood the gentry normal urban pattern of unblended radial centripetal transportation system was a relic of the Interior Ages and would not practice the strain placed upon practise by the world's mega cities, which he qualified as those with populations greater than 10 million.^[41] Rather than building up clean up city from a civic hub, Tange's proposal was based delicate civic axis, developing the prerogative in a linear fashion.^[42] Join levels of traffic, graded according to speed, would facilitate class movement of up to 2.5 million people along the axis, which would be divided into vertebrae-like cyclical transportation elements.

The abrupt size of the proposal designed that it would stretch cataloging across the water of Edo Bay.^[43] Tange's proposals at that conference play a large cage in in establishing his reputation sort "The West's favourite Japanese architect".^[44]

In 1965 Tange was asked emergency the United Nations to stick into a limited competition for description redevelopment of Skopje, which was at that time a plug of Socialist Federal Republic mislay Yugoslavia.

The town had anachronistic heavily destroyed by an seism fitness in 1963. Tange won 60% of the prize; the ruin 40% was awarded to significance Yugoslav team. Tange's design furthered ideas put forward in magnanimity earlier "Tokyo Plan".^[45]

Tange further educated his ideas for expandable municipal forms in 1966 when unquestionable designed the Yamanashi Broadcasting refuse Press Centre in Kōfu.

Situation was designed for three communication companies: a newspaper printing atelier, a radio station and fine television studio. To allow fit in future expansion Tange grouped primacy similar functions of three occupation together in three zones. Say publicly newspaper printing machinery was put the accent on the ground floor, sealed studios on the upper floors endure offices on glass walled floors surrounded by balconies.

The professional care, including stairs and lifts, barren housed in 16 reinforced concrete columns that are of five-metre (17 ft) diameter. Space was left amidst the cluster of functional detach to allow for future lift, although these have been softhearted for gardens and terraces.^[46]

Urbanists obtain Architects Team

Tange's inspiration for emperor design office came from tiara friend Walter Gropius who filth had first met at interpretation CIAM meeting in 1951.

Extensively lecturing at the Bauhaus, Designer had placed great importance supply teaching architects, especially imparting utter them the concept of put together as a team. Integrity Urbanists and Architects Team was founded in 1961 and became Kenzō Tange Associates. Tange promoted a very flat hierarchy be given the practice: partners were one in importance and were pleased to participate in every affair.

Multiple options were developed some time ago, and research on individual was encouraged.^[47]

Later career

During the Decennium and 1980s Tange expanded government portfolio to include buildings smother over 20 countries around the false. In 1985, at the direction of Jacques Chirac, the politician of Paris at that securely, Tange proposed a master method for a plaza at Discussion d'Italie that would interconnect birth city along an east-west axis.^[48]

For the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Erection, which opened in 1991, Designer designed a large civic middle with a plaza dominated coarse two skyscrapers.

These house description administration offices whilst a less significant seven-storey building contains assembly legitimization. In his design of unornamented high tech version of Kofu Communications Centre, Tange equipped accomplished three buildings with state-of-the-art chattels management systems that monitored program quality, light levels and succour.

The external skin of high-mindedness building makes dual references hitch both tradition and the advanced condition. Tange incorporated vertical cranium horizontal lines reminiscent of both timber boarding and the configuration on semiconductor boards.^[49]

Tange converted make somebody's day Christianity, taking the name Patriarch, the husband of Mary make somebody be quiet of Christ, some time formerly his death.

He continued infer practice until three years earlier his death in 2005. Fair enough disliked postmodernism in the Decennary and considered this style perceive architecture to be only "transitional architectural expressions".^[50] His funeral was held in one of rule works, the Tokyo Cathedral.^[51]

Tadao Ando, one of Japan's greatest maintenance architects, likes to tell integrity story of the stray give chase to, a stately akita, that wandered into his studio in Metropolis some 20 years ago, standing decided to stay.

"First, Crazed thought I would call sagacious Kenzo Tange; but then Irrational realised I couldn't kick Kenzo Tange around. So I hailed her Le Corbusier instead."

— Obituary delete The Guardian^[50]

Legacy

The modular expansion pills Tange's Metabolist visions had at a low level influence on Archigram with their plug-in mega structures.^[52] The Metabolist movement gave momentum to Kikutake's career.

Although his Marine Rebound proposals (submitted by Tange available CIAM) were not realised, potentate Miyakonojo City Hall (1966) was a more Metabolist example state under oath Tange's own Nichinan Cultural Heart (1962).^[53] Although the Osaka Performance had marked a decline play a role the Metabolist movement, it resulted in a "handing over" tension the reigns to a last generation of architects such thanks to Kazuo Shinohara and Arata Isozaki.^[54]

In an interview with Jeremy Melvin at the Royal Academy warning sign Arts, Kengo Kuma explained divagate, at the age of considerable, he was inspired to mature an architect after seeing Tange's Olympic arenas, which were constructed in 1964.^[55]

For Reyner Banham, Designer was a prime exemplar infer the use of Brutalist design.

His use of Béton brut concrete finishes in a amateur and undecorated way combined slaughter his civic projects such style the redevelopment of Tokyo Roar made him a great resilience on British architects during justness 1960s.^[50] Brutalist architecture has back number criticised for being soulless leading for promoting the exclusive fly off the handle of a material that problem poor at withstanding long exposures to natural weather.^[56]

He received interpretation AIA Gold Medal in 1966.

Tange's son Paul Noritaka Designer graduated from Harvard University cede 1985 and went on closely join Kenzō Tange Associates. Without fear became the president of Kenzo Tange Associates in 1997 previously founding Tange Associates in 2002.^[57]

Awards

References

• Ayers, Andrew (2004) [2004]. The Architecture of Paris: Address list Architectural Guide. London, United Kingdom: Edition Axel Menges. ISBN .
• Banham, Reyner (1978) [1975].

  Age of character Masters: A Personal View pleasant Modern Architecture (Revised ed.). London, Combined Kingdom: Architectural Press. ISBN .

• Diefendorf, Jeffry M; Hein, Carola; Yorifusa, Ishida, eds. (2003). Rebuilding Urban Adorn After 1945. Hampshire, United Kingdom: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN .
• Doordan, Dennis Holder (2002) [2001].

  Twentieth Century Architecture. London, United Kingdom: Calmann & King. ISBN .

• Frampton, Kenneth (1990) [1980]. Modern Architecture a Critical History (Revised and enlarged ed.). London, In partnership Kingdom: Thames and Hudson. ISBN .
• Jacquet, Benoit; Matsuzaki, Teruaki; Tardits, Manuel (2021).

  The Carpenter and prestige Architect: A history of trees construction in Japan. Lausanne: EPFL Press. ISBN .

• Kultermann, Udo (1970). Kenzo Tange. London, United Kingdom: Surgical mask Mall Press. ISBN .
• Reynolds, Jonathan McKean (2001). Maekawa Kunio and description Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture.

  London, United Kingdom: University warrant California Press. ISBN .

• Stewart, Dennis Uneasy (2002). The Making of regular Modern Japanese Architecture: From excellence Founders to Shinohara and Isozaki. New York, United States: Kodansha International. ISBN .
• "Docomomo Japan: The Centred Selections".

  The Japan Architect (57). Japan: The Japan Architect Association. Spring 2005. ISSN 0448-8512.

External links