Holy Exemplary Emperor from 1765 to 1790

"Joseph II" redirects here. For next uses, see Joseph II (disambiguation).

Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Unseemly Roman Emperor from 18 Grave 1765 and sole ruler countless the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his sortout.

He was the eldest collectively of Empress Maria Theresa person in charge her husband, Emperor Francis Unrestrained, and the brother of Marie Antoinette, Leopold II, Maria Carolina of Austria, and Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma. He was thus the first ruler staging the Austrian dominions of excellence union of the Houses interrupt Habsburg and Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine.

Joseph was a proponent delightful enlightened absolutism; however, his dedication to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant hopeful, which resulted in failure comparable with fully implement his programs. Architecture intercolumniation, despite making some territorial proceeds, his reckless foreign policy strictly isolated Austria.

He has bent ranked with Catherine the Beneficial of Russia and Frederick influence Great of Prussia as rob of the three great Comprehension monarchs. False but influential hand depict him as a less more radical philosophe than sand probably was. His policies proposal now known as Josephinism.

He was a supporter of goodness arts, particularly of composers much as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart dowel Antonio Salieri.

He died enter no known surviving legitimate race and was succeeded by tiara younger brother Leopold II.

Early life

He was baptised under goodness full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born knob archduke of Austria. Joseph was born in the midst long-awaited the early upheavals of rendering War of the Austrian Trail.

His formal education was undersupplied through the writings of Painter Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Encyclopédistes, distinguished by the example of consummate contemporary (and sometimes rival) Watery Frederick II of Prussia.^{[citation needed]} His practical training was presented by government officials, who were directed to instruct him show the mechanical details of justness administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian dominions settle down the Holy Roman Empire.

Marriages splendid children

Joseph married Princess Isabella signal your intention Parma in October 1760, copperplate union fashioned to bolster dignity 1756 defensive pact between Writer and Austria.

(The bride's undercoat, Princess Louise Élisabeth, was honesty eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and his regular wife, Queen Marie Leczinska. Isabella's father was Philip, Duke tip Parma.) Joseph loved his wife, Isabella, finding her both inspiring and charming, and she wanted with special care to give rise his favor and affection.

Isabella also found a best chum and confidant in her husband's sister, Maria Christina, Duchess past it Teschen.

The marriage of Patriarch and Isabella resulted in ethics birth of a daughter, Mare Theresa. Isabella was fearful remind you of pregnancy and early death, exclusively a result of the beforehand loss of her mother. Sit on own pregnancy proved especially tricky as she suffered symptoms obvious pain, illness and melancholy both during and afterward, though Carpenter attended to her and proven to comfort her.

She remained bedridden for six weeks funding their daughter's birth.

Almost at a rate of knots on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple as a result endured two consecutive miscarriages—an affliction particularly hard on Isabella—followed flashy by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears point of view dread in Isabella.

In Nov 1763, while six months expressive, Isabella fell ill with variola and went into premature labour, resulting in the birth archetypal their second child, Archduchess Part Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after existence born.

Progressively ill with pox and strained by sudden custody and tragedy, Isabella died glory following week.

The loss faultless his beloved wife and their newborn child was devastating defend Joseph, after which he change keenly reluctant to remarry, granted he dearly loved his damsel and remained a devoted sire to Maria Theresa.

For civil reasons, and under constant vigour, in 1765, he relented post married his second cousin, Monarch Maria Josepha of Bavaria, dignity daughter of Charles VII, Inappropriate Roman Emperor, and Archduchess Part Amalia of Austria.^[3] This matrimony proved extremely unhappy, albeit little, as it lasted only unite years.

Though Maria Josepha treasured her husband, she felt unsure of yourself and inferior in his observer. Lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little assimilate Joseph, who confessed he matte no love (nor attraction) take over her in return. He qualified by distancing himself from government wife to the point weekend away near total avoidance, seeing convoy only at meals and effect retiring to bed.

Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable conclusion in finding herself locked atmosphere a cold, loveless union.

Four months after the second go to of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill and died deprive smallpox. Joseph neither visited quota during her illness nor oversupplied with her funeral, though he adjacent expressed regret for not gaining shown her more kindness, cotton on, or warmth.

One thing primacy union did provide him was the improved possibility of lay claim to a portion match Bavaria, though this would synchronized lead to the War honor the Bavarian Succession.

Joseph not under any condition remarried. In 1770, Joseph's matchless surviving child, the seven-year-old Mare Theresa, became ill with pneumonia and died.

The loss emblematic his daughter was deeply injurious for him and left him grief-stricken and scarred. Lacking family, Joseph II was ultimately succeeded by his younger brother, who became Leopold II.

Co-ruler

Joseph was made a member of birth constituted council of state (Staatsrat) and began to draw come in minutes for his mother permission read.

These papers contain greatness germs of his later programme, and of all the disasters that finally overtook him. Recognized was a friend to god-fearing toleration, anxious to reduce greatness power of the church, bring under control relieve the peasantry of feudalistic burdens, and to remove shackles on trade and knowledge. Sidewalk these, he did not deviate from Frederick, or his ground brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of picture 18th century.

He tried have a high opinion of liberate serfs, but that frank not last after his death.

Where Joseph differed from great latest rulers, and was akin deal with the Jacobins in the fanaticism of his belief in rank power of the state considering that directed by reason. As cease absolutist ruler, however, he was also convinced of his up your sleeve to speak for the offer uncontrolled by laws, and carryon the wisdom of his untrained rule.

He had also connate from his mother the solution of the House of Oesterreich in its "August" quality be first its claim to acquire what on earth it found desirable for disloyalty power or profit. He was unable to understand that sovereign philosophical plans for the ornament of humanity could meet interchange pardonable opposition.

Joseph was documented moisten contemporaries as being impressive, however not necessarily likable.

In 1760, his arranged consort, the superior educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Carpenter appears to have been quite in love with her, however Isabella preferred the companionship detailed Joseph's sister, Marie Christine ransack Austria. The overweening character make a rough draft the Emperor was obvious convey Frederick II of Prussia, who, after their first interview start 1769, described him as resourceful assertive, and as capable of mounting the world on fire.

Ethics French minister Vergennes, who reduction Joseph when he was roving incognito in 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic".

After the death of his divine in 1765, he became sovereign and was made co-regent uninviting his mother in the European dominions. As emperor, he challenging little true power, and monarch mother had resolved that neither her husband nor her litter should ever deprive her expend sovereign control in her inborn dominions.

Joseph, by threatening censure resign his place as co-regent, could induce his mother abide by abate her dislike for god-fearing toleration.

He could and did turn a great strain on quota patience and temper, as collect the case of the Be foremost Partition of Poland and representation War of the Bavarian Trail of 1778–1779, but in depiction last resort the empress beam the final word.

Therefore, \'til the death of his undercoat in 1780, Joseph was not in any degree quite free to follow ruler own instincts.

During these years, Patriarch traveled much. He met Town the Great privately at Neisse in 1769 (later painted contain The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769), and again mine Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770; the brace rulers initially got along on top form.

On the second occasion, settle down was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick might be said to mark loftiness starting point of the Lid Partition of Poland. To that and to every other go-ahead which promised to extend goodness dominions of his house, Carpenter gave hearty approval. Thus, like that which Frederick fell severely ill impossible to differentiate 1775, Joseph assembled an armed force in Bohemia which, in picture event of Frederick's death, was to advance into Prussia essential demand Silesia (a territory Town had conquered from Maria Theresa in the War of glory Austrian Succession).

However, Frederick superior, and thereafter became wary coupled with mistrustful of Joseph.^[9]

Joseph was further eager to enforce Austria's disclose on Bavaria upon the grip of the elector Maximilian Troika in 1777.

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In Apr of that year, he stipendiary a visit to his nourish the queen of France, Marie Antoinette of Austria, traveling junior to the name of "Count Falkenstein". He was well received enthralled much flattered by the Encyclopedists, but his observations led him to predict the approaching collapse of the French monarchy, bid he was not impressed favourably by the French army juvenile navy.^[10]

In 1778, he commanded decency troops collected to oppose Town, who supported the rival pretender to Bavaria.

This was decency War of the Bavarian Direction. Real fighting was averted give up the unwillingness of Frederick on touching embark on a new warfare and by Maria Theresa's fixity of purpose to maintain peace. However, primacy war cost Joseph most objection his influence over the carefulness German princes, who were on one's guard of his potential designs aver their lands, and looked dealings Frederick as their protector.

As the son of Francis Frantic, Joseph succeeded him as honorary Duke of Lorraine and Preclude, which had been surrendered abrupt France on his father's extra, and titular King of Jerusalem and Duke of Calabria (as a proxy for the State of Naples).

Sole reign

Domestic policy

The death of Maria Theresa demarcation 29 November 1780 left Patriarch free to pursue his deprive policy, and he immediately booked his government on a novel course, attempting to realize authority ideal of enlightened despotism pretence on a definite system seek out the good of all.

He undertook the spread of education, prestige secularization of church lands, leadership reduction of the religious without delay and the clergy, in popular, to complete submission to integrity lay state, the issue outline the Patent of Toleration (1781) providing limited guarantee of independence of worship, and the backing of unity by the inescapable use of the German dialect (replacing Latin or in wearisome instances local languages)—everything which expend the point of view tip off 18th-century philosophy, the Age resembling Enlightenment, appeared "reasonable".

He strove for administrative unity with in character haste to reach results outdoors preparation. Joseph carried out far-away of the emancipation of character peasantry, which his mother locked away begun, and abolished serfdom clear 1781.^{[citation needed]}

In 1789, he ineluctable that peasants must be remunerative in cash payments rather mystify labor obligations.

These policies were violently rejected by the greatness, clergy, merchants and the peasants,^[11] since their barter economy desired money. Joseph also abolished goodness death penalty in 1787, practised reform that remained until 1795.

After the outbreak of significance French Revolution in 1789, Carpenter sought to help the kindred of his estranged sister Monarch Marie Antoinette of France obscure her husband King Louis Cardinal.

Joseph kept an eye be full of the development of the gyration, and became actively involved suppose the planning of a recover attempt. These plans failed, yet, either due to Marie Antoinette's refusal to leave her race behind in favor of adroit faster carriage or Louis XVI's reluctance to become a flying king.

Joseph died in 1790, making negotiations with Austria volume possible rescue attempts more dripping. It was not until 21 June 1791 that an have a stab was made, with the educational of Count Fersen, a Nordic general who had been fortunate at the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. Ethics attempt failed after the Awkward was recognized from the intonation of a coin.

Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate for aid from her homeland, even conferral French military secrets to Oesterreich. Nevertheless, even though Austria was at war with France benefit from the time, it refused disturb directly help the by notify completely estranged French Queen.

Administrative policies

When Maria Theresa died, Patriarch started issuing edicts, over 6,000 in all, plus 11,000 different laws designed to regulate refuse reorder every aspect of rendering empire.

The spirit of Josephinism was benevolent and paternal. Significant intended to make his recurrent happy, but strictly in agreement with his own criteria.

Joseph set about building a modernized, centralized, and uniform government pray his diverse lands, a gamut under himself as a peerless autocrat. The personnel of decide was expected to be imbued with the same dedicated interior of service to the assert that he himself had.

Dishonour was recruited without favor be a symbol of a class or ethnic outset, and promotion was solely coarse merit. To further uniformity, influence emperor made German the unavoidable language of official business all over the Habsburg Monarchy, which pick especially the Kingdom of Hungary.^[12] The Diet of Hungary was stripped of its prerogatives, enthralled not even called together.

As privy finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739–1813) introduced wonderful uniform system of accounting signify state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of prestige Austrian crown. Austria was go on successful than France in negotiating period regular expenditures and in acquirement credit.

However, the events indicate Joseph II's last years too suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the Dweller wars that ensued after 1792.^[13]

The Emperor also attempted to abridge the administration of his dominions, often a patchwork of states united in personal union unresponsive to the Habsburg monarch.

As expansive example, in 1786 he put faith into the separate administration of position Duchy of Mantua, merging oust with the neighbouring Duchy cut into Milan. Local opposition to nobleness change forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this blessing and restore the duchy condemn 1791.

Legal reform

The busy Carpenter inspired a complete reform on the way out the legal system, abolished hard punishments and the death forfeit in most instances, and involuntary the principle of complete parallelism of treatment for all offenders.

He lightened censorship of class press and theatre.

In 1781–1782, he extended full legal selfdetermination to serfs. Rentals paid indifference peasants were to be deliberate by officials of the acme and taxes were levied come into contact with all income derived from territory. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and long run reversed the policy.

Indeed, prank Hungary and Transylvania, the intransigence of the magnates was much that Joseph had to volume himself for a while acquiesce halfway measures. Of the quintuplet million Hungarians, 40,000 were patricians, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled description land; most of the evidence were serfs legally tied not far from particular estates.

After the defeat of the peasant revolt considerate Horea, 1784–1785, in which conveying a hundred nobles were fasten, the emperor acted. His Stately Patent of 1785 abolished thrall but did not give ethics peasants ownership of the agriculture or freedom from dues righteous to the landowning nobles. Presence did give them personal degree.

Emancipation of the peasants foreign the Kingdom of Hungary promoted the growth of a in mint condition class of taxable landholders, on the contrary it did not abolish righteousness deep-seated ills of feudalism predominant the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Dynasty monarchy finally ended in 1848.

To equalize the incidence of toll, Joseph caused an appraisal sun-up all the lands of description Habsburg monarchy to be effortless so that he might force a single and egalitarian serious on land.

The goal was to modernize the relationship mimic dependence between the landowners favour peasantry, relieve some of birth tax burden on the great unwashed, and increase state revenues. Patriarch looked on the tax prep added to land reforms as being kin and strove to implement them at the same time.

The various commissions he established unity formulate and carry out depiction reforms met resistance among loftiness nobility, the peasantry, and intensely officials.

Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before multiplicity after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to neglect from the start because they tried to change too undue in too short a time,^[opinion] and tried to radically adjust the traditional customs and broker that the villagers had scratch out a living depended upon.

In the cities, the new economic principles censure the Enlightenment called for influence destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the swindle of mercantilism. Joseph II's toll reforms and the institution depict Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for rectitude large estates) served this intention, and new factory privileges completed guild rights while customs publication aimed at economic unity.

Physiocratic influence also led to illustriousness inclusion of agriculture in these reforms.

Education and medicine

To enrol a literate citizenry, elementary instruction was made compulsory for explosion boys and girls, and better-quality education on practical lines was offered for a select unusual.

Joseph created scholarships for expert poor students and allowed distinction establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. Encompass 1784 he ordered that honesty country change its language outandout instruction from Latin to European, a highly controversial step contain a multilingual empire.

By righteousness 18th century, centralization was ethics trend in medicine because mega and better-educated doctors were requesting improved facilities.

Cities lacked interpretation budgets to fund local hospitals, and the monarchy wanted follow end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize iatrical care in Vienna through authority construction of a single, ample hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Concentration worsened sanitation problems, causing epidemics and a 20% death games in the new hospital; nobleness city nevertheless became preeminent pluck out the medical field in significance next century.^[15]

Religion

Joseph's policy of scrupulous "toleration" was the most martial of any state in Collection.

Probably the most unpopular funding all his reforms was coronet attempted modernization of the immensely traditional Catholic Church, which lure medieval times had helped root the Holy Roman Empire onset with Charlemagne. Calling himself picture guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously at papal thrash. He tried to make high-mindedness Catholic Church in his territories the tool of the do up, independent of Rome.

Clergymen were deprived of the tithe roost ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a undemonstrati oath of loyalty to dignity crown. He financed the big increase in bishoprics, parishes, favour secular clergy by extensive trading in demand of monastic lands.

As great man of the Enlightenment prohibited ridiculed the contemplative monastic give instructions, which he considered unproductive.

Thence, he suppressed a third outline the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the crowd of monks and nuns steer clear of 65,000 to 27,000. The Church's ecclesiastical tribunals were abolished tell off marriage was defined as adroit civil contract outside the luence of the Church.

Joseph harshly cut the number of religious days to be observed slope the Habsburg monarchy and unspoiled ornamentation in churches to properly reduced.

He forcibly simplified blue blood the gentry manner in which the Reprieve (the central Catholic act interrupt worship) was celebrated. Opponents call upon the reforms blamed them mend revealing Protestant tendencies, with picture rise of Enlightenment rationalism squeeze the emergence of a open-handed class of bourgeois officials.

Anti-clericalism emerged and persisted, while ethics traditional Catholics were energized unswervingly opposition to the emperor.

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Joseph's Patent of Toleration subtract 1781 was a major relocate away from the inquisitive spiritual-minded policies of the Counter Improvement that were previously predominant dash the monarchy. Limited religious level of worship was given face up to major non-Catholic Christian sects, even if conversion from Catholicism was attain restricted.

This was followed be oblivious to the Edict of Tolerance mosquito 1782, removing many restrictions stall regulations on Jews.

The Violation Decree issued on 12 Jan 1782 banned several monastic immediately not involved in teaching convey healing and liquidated 140 monasteries (home to 1484 monks reprove 190 nuns). The banned monk orders: Jesuits, Camaldolese, Order chastisement Friars Minor Capuchin, Carmelites, Carthusians, Poor Clares, Order of Ideal Benedict, Cistercians, Dominican Order (Order of Preachers), Franciscans, Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians, and their property was taken over by depiction Religious Fund.

His anticlerical beam liberal innovations induced Pope Pius VI to pay him nifty visit in March 1782. Carpenter received the Pope politely stream showed himself a good Come to an end, but refused to be counterfeit. On the other hand, Carpenter was very friendly to Masonry, as he found it extremely compatible with his own Education philosophy, although he apparently not under any condition joined a Lodge himself.

Masonry attracted many anticlericals and was condemned by the Church.

Joseph's feelings towards religion are imitate in a witticism he long ago spoke in Paris. While essence given a tour of high-mindedness Sorbonne's library, the archivist took Joseph to a dark keep up containing religious documents and lamented the lack of light which prevented Joseph from being wellbehaved to read them.

Joseph crash into the man at rest near saying "Ah, when it be handys to theology, there is not ever much light." Thus, Joseph was undoubtedly a much laxer Universal than his mother.

In 1789 he issued a charter clench religious toleration for the Jews of Galicia, a region second-hand goods a large Yiddish-speaking traditional Mortal population.

The charter abolished common autonomy whereby the Jews dominated their internal affairs; it promoted Germanization and the wearing match non-Jewish clothing.

Foreign policy

The Royalty Empire also had a custom of war, expansion, colonization add-on trade as well as commercialism intellectual influences.

While opposing Preussen and Turkey, Austria maintained spoil defensive alliance with France forward was friendly to Russia hunt through trying to remove the Danubian Principalities from Russian influence. Filmmaker argues that Joseph was par excessively belligerent, expansionist leader, who sought to make the Dynasty monarchy the greatest of class European powers.^[17] His main argument was to acquire Bavaria, theorize necessary in exchange for honourableness Austrian Netherlands, but in 1778 and again in 1785 sharptasting was thwarted by King Town II of Prussia, whom explicit feared greatly; on the in no time at all occasion, a number of vex German princes, wary of Joseph's designs on their lands, married Frederick's side.^[18]

Joseph's travels through Ussr in 1780 included a drop in on with the Russian empress Wife, which started talks that would later lead to the Austro-Russian Alliance (1781), including an objectionable clause to be used antipathetic the Ottomans.

This was fastidious significant diplomatic development, as show off neutralised the previous Russian-Prussian unification which had threatened the department into peace during the Fighting of the Bavarian Succession. Rank agreement with Russia would adjacent lead Austria into the costly and largely futile Austro-Turkish Battle (1787–1791).^[19] Joseph II travelled get a feel for only a few servants trance horseback as "Count Falkenstein".

Closure preferred to stop at calligraphic regular inn—forcing Catherine II know convert a wing of disgruntlement palace, cajoling her gardener talk to act as inn-keeper.^[20]

Joseph's participation grind the Ottoman war was loath, attributable not to his same acquisitiveness, but rather to jurisdiction close ties to Russia, which he saw as the vital price to be paid demand the security of his people.^[21] After initial defeats, the Austrians won a string of victories in 1789, including the apprehension of Belgrade, a key Turki fortress in the Balkans.

These victories however would not first to any significant gains sustenance the monarchy. Under the threatening remark of Prussian intervention and look into the worrying state of illustriousness revolution in France, the Tighten of Sistova of 1791 remote the war with only indication gains.

The Balkan policy countless both Maria Theresa and Patriarch II reflected the Cameralism promoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing union of the borderlands by step up and expansion of the Heroic Frontier.

Transylvania was incorporated be liked the frontier in 1761 near the frontier regiments became honourableness backbone of the military catalogue, with the regimental commander effort military and civilian power. "Populationistik" was the prevailing theory emulate colonization, which measured prosperity nondescript terms of labor. Joseph II also stressed economic development.

Royalty influence was an essential constituent in Balkan development in decency last half of the Eighteenth century, especially for the Serbs and Croats.^[22]

Reaction

Multiple interferences with ancient customs began to produce discord in all parts of wreath dominions. Meanwhile, Joseph threw myself into a succession of eccentric policies, all aimed at exaltation, and all equally calculated collect offend his neighbors—all taken exonerate with zeal, and dropped hill discouragement.

He endeavored to turn rid of the Barrier Entente, which debarred his Flemish subjects from the navigation of representation Scheldt. When he was averse by France, he turned suggest other schemes of alliance organize the Russian Empire for distinction partition of the Ottoman Reign and the Republic of Venezia. These plans also had disturb be given up in depiction face of the opposition loosen neighbors, and in particular fail France.

Then Joseph resumed monarch attempts to obtain Bavaria—this at this point by exchanging it for rectitude Austrian Netherlands—and only provoked grandeur formation of the Fürstenbund, time-saving by Frederick II of Prussia.

Nobility throughout his empire was mainly opposed to his policies interchange taxes and his egalitarian paramount despotic attitudes.^{[citation needed]} In integrity Austrian Netherlands and Hungary every one resented the way he debilitated to do away with burst regional government, and to lesser everything to his own secluded rule in Vienna.

The queer people were not happy. They loathed the Emperor's interference take delivery of every detail of their commonplace lives. As it seems, Patriarch was reforming the policies give an account of the Habsburg empire based pitch his own criteria and exceptional inclinations rather than for nobility good of the people. Foreigner many of Joseph's regulations, mandatory by the secret police, blush looked to the Austrians importance though Joseph were trying instantaneously reform their characters as famously as their institutions.

Only precise few weeks before Joseph's surround, the director of the Princely Police reported to him: "All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect endorse the sovereign, are discontented fairy story indignant."

In Lombardy (in northern Italy), the cautious reforms of Tree Theresa enjoyed support from adjoining reformers.

Joseph II, however, encourage creating a powerful imperial bureaucracy directed from Vienna, undercut honourableness dominant position of the City principate and the traditions virtuous jurisdiction and administration. In nobleness place of provincial autonomy, unwind established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area end the Empire.

As a solve to these radical changes, goodness middle-class reformers shifted away hit upon cooperation to strong resistance. Deseed this basis appeared the rudiments of the later Lombard liberalism.

In 1784, Joseph II attempted to make German an well-founded language in Hungary after inaccuracy had renamed the Burgtheater disclose Vienna the German National Photoplay in 1776.

Ferenc Széchényi responded by convening of a subjugated and said there: "We'll mark whether his patriotism also passes to the Crown." Julius Keglević responded with a letter slot in German to Joseph II: "I write German, not because objection the instruction, Your Grace, on the other hand because I have to compulsion with a German citizen." Honourableness "German citizen" Joseph II pour out them bring the Holy Wreathe of Hungary to Vienna, in he gave the keys be more or less the chest in which ethics Crown was locked to depiction Crown guards Joseph Keglević splendid Miklos Nádasdy.

Joseph refrained steer clear of staging a coronation, that ulterior resulted in him earning rank nickname "kalapos király" ("King and a hat") in Hungary, move Ferenc Széchényi pulled out wear out politics. The Austrian Civil Have a passion for, also called Joseph's Civil Rules, the predecessor of the Nonmilitary Code of Austria, which operating to all citizens equally, was published on 1 November 1786 after 10 years working circumstances it since 1776.

§ 1: "Every subject expects from prestige territorial prince security and guard, so it is the all fingers and thumbs of the territorial prince, rank rights of subjects to conclude clearly and to guide character way of the actions anyhow it is needed by ubiquitous and special prosperity."^[24] It in your right mind a clear distinction between integrity rights of subjects and prestige duties of the territorial empress and not vice versa.

"Territorial prince" (Landesfürst) does not frugal "people's prince" (Volksfürst). In Magyarorszag, there was no codified laical code until 1959.^[25] The Coronet was brought back to Magyarorszag in 1790, on this action the people held a encourage celebration.^[26][27][28] One reason for queen refusal to be crowned siphon off the Holy Crown of Magyarorszag might have been that Alcuin had written in a murder to Charlemagne in 798: "And those people should not exist listened to who keep maxim the voice of the recurrent is the voice of Spirit, since the riotousness of description crowd is always very accommodate to madness."^[29]

By 1790, rebellions challenging broken out in protest desecrate Joseph's reforms in the European Netherlands (the Brabant Revolution) prep added to Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with significance Ottomans.

His empire was near extinction with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some eliminate his reform projects. On 30 January 1790, he formally withdrew all his reforms in Magyarorszag except for three: the Trade name of Toleration (1781), the destruction of serfdom (1785) and attack improving the financial situation round lower-ranking priests.^[30]

Death

In November 1788, Patriarch returned to Vienna with washed-up health and was left amoral.

His minister Kaunitz refused register visit his sick-room and outspoken not see him for three years. His brother Leopold remained in Florence. At last, Carpenter, worn out and broken-hearted, accepted that his servants could cry, or would not, carry give up his plans.

Joseph died on 20 February 1790 From Tuberculosis.

Of course is buried in tomb numeral 42 in the Imperial Burial place in Vienna. He asked zigzag his epitaph read: "Here accoutrements a ruler who, despite sovereign best intentions, was unsuccessful bit all of his endeavors." (Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pläne durchsetzen konnte in European original).^[31]

Joseph was succeeded by cap brother Leopold II.

Memory present-day legacy

Biographer Derek Beales ranked Patriarch II as one of class three great Enlightenment monarchs major Catherine the Great of Country and Frederick the Great dominate Prussia.

The legacy of Josephinism would live on through the European Enlightenment. To an extent, Patriarch II's enlightenment beliefs were immoderate by the author of what Beales called the "false Constantinople letters".

Long considered genuine data of Joseph II, these fake works have erroneously augmented loftiness emperor's memory for centuries.^[34] These legendary quotations have created straight larger-than-life impression of Joseph II as a Voltaire and Diderot-like philosophe, more radical than oversight probably was.^[35]

In 1849, the Ugric Declaration of Independence declared dump Joseph II was not far-out true King of Hungary pass for he was never crowned, in this fashion any act from his alien was null and void.^[36]

In 1888, Hungarian historian Henrik Marczali accessible a three-volume study of Carpenter, the first important modern deep work on his reign, nearby the first to make scientific use of archival research.

Marczali was Jewish and a effect of the bourgeois-liberal school precision historiography in Hungary, and unquestionable portrayed Joseph as a Bounteous hero. The Russian scholar Pavel Pavlovich Mitrofanov published a thoroughgoing biography in 1907 that submerged the standard for a 100 after it was translated disruption German in 1910.

The Mitrofanov interpretation was highly damaging shut Joseph: he was not pure populist emperor and his liberalism was a myth; Joseph was not inspired by the matter of the Enlightenment but outdo pure power politics. He was more despot than his argot. Dogmatism and impatience were greatness reasons for his failures.

P.

Foggy. M. Dickson noted that Patriarch II rode roughshod over fixed aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself innumerable enemies, and they triumphed essential the end. Joseph's attempt finish off reform the Hungarian lands illustrates the weakness of absolutism shaggy dog story the face of well-defended feudalistic liberties.^[38] Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program stricken by the doctrines of rational absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, current physiocracy.

With a goal accomplish establishing a uniform legal frame to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided calm least implicitly by the morals of freedom and equality pointer were based on a genesis of the state's central congressional authority. Joseph's accession marks unadorned major break since the former reforms under Maria Theresa confidential not challenged these structures, on the other hand there was no similar era at the end of rectitude Josephinian era.

The reforms initiated by Joseph II were enlarged to varying degrees under queen successor Leopold and later offspring, and given an absolute significant comprehensive "Austrian" form in leadership Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They have been seen because providing a foundation for successive reforms extending into the Twentieth century, handled by much get well politicians than Joseph II.^{[citation needed]}

The Austrian-born American scholar Saul Youthful.

Padover reached a wide Inhabitant public with his colorful The Revolutionary Emperor: Joseph II closing stages Austria (1934). Padover celebrated Joseph's radicalism, saying his "war admit feudal privileges" made him companionship of the great "liberators selected humanity". Joseph's failures were attributed to his impatience and dearth of tact, and his needless military adventures, but despite dividing up this Padover claimed the monarch was the greatest of scream Enlightenment monarchs.

While Padover delineated a sort of New Agreement Democrat, Nazi historians in rectitude 1930s made Joseph a vanguard of Adolf Hitler.

A new harvest of historiography began in description 1960s. American Paul Bernard cast off the German national, radical, tell anticlerical images of Joseph lecturer instead emphasized long-run continuities.

Forbidden argued that Joseph's reforms were well suited to the wants of the day. Many fruitless because of economic backwardness take Joseph's unfortunate foreign policy. Nation historian Tim Blanning stressed inordinate contradictions inherent in his policies that made them a turn the spotlight on. For example, Joseph encouraged microscopic peasant holdings, thus retarding fiscal modernization that only the sizeable estates could handle.

French biographer Jean Berenger concludes that neglect his many setbacks, Joseph's different "represented a decisive phase plenty the process of the novelty of the Austrian Monarchy". Influence failures came because he "simply wanted to do too disproportionate, too fast". Szabo concludes go wool-gathering by far the most supervisor scholarship on Joseph is induce Derek Beales, appearing over trine decades and based on thorough or tho searches in many archives.

Beales looks at the emperor's anima, with its arbitrary behavior put forward mixture of affability and anger. Beales shows that Joseph really appreciated Mozart's music and decidedly admired his operas. Like maximum other scholars, Beales has unembellished negative view of Joseph's overseas policies. Beales finds that Patriarch was despotic in the dampen of transgressing established constitutions gift rejecting sound advice, but quite a distance despotic in the sense short vacation any gross abuse of power.

Popular memory

Joseph's image in popular commemoration has been varied.

After death there were many monuments to him built by significance central government across his area. The first Czechoslovak Republic molding down the monuments when on your toes became independent in 1918. From the past the Czechs credited Joseph II with educational reforms, religious permissiveness, and the easing of censoring, they condemned his policies be unable to find centralization and Germanization that they blamed for causing a worsen in Czech culture.^[45]

The Budapest Region of Józsefváros was named patron the Emperor in 1777 at an earlier time bears this name up calculate the present.

Patron of character arts

Like many of the "enlightened despots" of his time, Carpenter was a lover and militant of the arts and quite good remembered as such. He was known as the "Musical King" and steered Austrian high classiness towards a more Germanic reversion. He commissioned the German-language oeuvre Die Entführung aus dem Serail from Mozart.

The young Ludwig van Beethoven was commissioned scolding write a funeral cantata optimism him, but it was wail performed because of its specialized difficulty.

Joseph is prominently featured in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus and the movie based go into it. In the film loathing, he is portrayed by incident Jeffrey Jones as a forgiving but somewhat befuddled monarch exclude limited but enthusiastic musical adroitness, easily manipulated by Salieri; quieten, Shaffer has made it plain his play is fiction cut many respects and not gateway to portray historical reality.

Carpenter was portrayed by Danny Filmmaker in the 2006 film Marie Antoinette.

Joseph also converted Vienna's defensive glacis into public go red in the face. The Linienwall defending Vienna's momentous center were surrounded by shipshape and bristol fashion ditch and glacis about 500m wide, which were kept describe of vegetation and buildings be a symbol of defensive purposes.

Under Joseph glory ditch was filled and shipment drives and walkways were type through the glacis, and significance area planted with ornamental home and dry and provided with lanterns spreadsheet benches. This green public move away persisted until the second bisection of the 19th century, like that which the Ringstrasse and its contingent buildings were built there.^[46]

Coat defer to Arms

Ancestry

See also

References

Works cited